Devotional, Ornamental and Narrative Themes

 Monika Zin and Dieter Schlingloff

The complex of monasteries at Ajantā appears so unique to us today because no other ancient Indian site has been as well preserved in its entirety - not just its architecture and sculpture but its paintings as well. In its day Ajantā was certainly not unique and its paintings not unusual. There is not a single theme in the paintings that does not appear elsewhere in Indian art or literature. Ajantā therefore offers, in a wealth of pictorial expression, a way of grasping the ideas and images that characterised an entire era. The devotional and ornamental paintings make up the majority of the murals at Ajantā, and there are hundreds of individual examples. While the motifs are always executed differently, they repeat a specific number of themes such as flower garlands (fig.1), genies with elephant ears (gajakarnas), (fig.2), representations of scenes of Buddha veneration (fig.3), or the Wheel of Existences (Samsaracakra) (fig.4). The paintings under discussion have originated both in the first and second phases of artistic activity at Ajantā (the 1^st century BC and 5^th century AD respectively). The devotional and ornamental paintings include both the large-scale murals depicting the mythical landscapes of the Bodhisattva kings and the paintings of Buddha veneration, as well as purely ornamental paintings on the pillars and ceilings. Compared to the narrative paintings, they can all be characterized as non-narrative. This in no way implies that these images do not have their parallels in literature. Literary references can be found in painting instructions and in the descriptions of figures, as well as in stories that could have served as background information for the painted scenes. The only thing the non-narrative paintings do not show is a narrative plot, i.e. scenes that could be viewed and read sequentially. The separation of the paintings into narrative and non-narrative categories brings a very important aspect to light: the narrative paintings show subject material handed down from Buddhists faith, the non-narrative on the other hand largely comprise of elements that are not bound to a specific belief, but rather are made up of general ideas prevalent at the time. Thus more than the narrative paintings, they provide a way of understanding the attitudes and beliefs of donors, artists and monastery visitors that were not part of 'official' religious doctrines. In the completed or nearly completed decorations of Ajantā caves, the arrangement of the paintings was executed rather consistently and can be easily identified. (fig.5). The paintings showing Bodhisattva kings surrounded by landscapes were placed at the main entrances (fig.6 and 7), at the entrances to the vestibules (fig. 8 and 9) and to the shrines (fig. 10 and 11). The narrative paintings were positioned on the side walls of the caves (fig. 12) and in some cases the side walls of the verandas. Ceilings and pillars were adorned with geometric, floral or figurative ornamentation (fig.13, 14, 15 and 16). All this left hardly any room for the Buddha paintings, which only appear in depictions showing the Master in narrative stories, or above the entrance door as a series of the seven Buddhas and Maitreya (Fig.17) . The fact that despite these rigid arrangement guidelines there are many, sometimes hundreds of Buddha depictions (fig. 18 and 19) in a cave is an indication that the original plan was abandoned. In the terminology used by Walter Spink, the Buddha paintings are 'intrusions', while the other paintings belong to the painting 'program'. Contrary to the plans to paint entire caves, which in some cases are confirmed by donor inscriptions at the cave entrances, the 'intrusions' are individual paintings which often name their donors in separate inscriptions. These 'small' donors believed they could purchase particular merit by commissioning pictures of the Buddha rather than themes of less spiritual value. Those individually donated scenes were inserted in places which had remained empty in the initial decoration process. Without regard for surroundings that would be worthy for a Buddha image, these intrusive paintings were often placed in rather unsuitable locations, for instance as a minor addition within a painting of far superior execution showing genies.

fig.1
	Cave 17 > ceiling > ORNAMENTAL PAINTINGS, GENIES AND SCENES.
fig.2
	Cave 11, veranda, rear wall > Bodhisattva King in a Mountaineous Landscape > GAJAKARNA (ELEPHANT-EAR GENIES).
fig.3
	Cave 19 > ambulatory > left wall > BUDDHA SERIES AND SCENES.
fig.4
	Cave 17 > veranda > left wall > SAMSARACAKRA (THE WHEEL OF EXISTENCES).
fig.5
	Hall > rear wall > left of shrine. SUMĀGADHĀ on left and MAHOṠADHA (commonly known as MAHĀJANAKA JĀTAKA) on right and below.
fig.6
	Cave 17 > veranda > rear wall > left of doorway > BODHISATTVA KING IN A MOUNTAINEOUS LANDSCAPE.
fig.7
	Cave 17 > veranda > rear wall > right of doorway > BODHISATTVA KING IN A MOUNTAINEOUS LANDSCAPE.
fig.8
	Cave 1 > hall > rear wall > left of shrine > BODHISATTVA KING IN A MOUNTAINEOUS LANDSCAPE.
fig.9
	Cave 1 > hall > rear wall > right of shrine > BODHISATTVA KING IN A MOUNTAINEOUS LANDSCAPE.
fig.10
	Cave 1 > shrine antechamber > rear wall > left of shrine doorway > BODHISATTVA KING IN A MOUNTAINEOUS LANDSCAPE.
fig.11
	Cave 1 > shrine antechamber > rear wall > right of shrine doorway > BODHISATTVA KING IN A MOUNTAINEOUS LANDSCAPE.
fig.12
	Veranda > left rear wall. UDĀYIN; episodes 1 and 4: Udāyin, the son of King Shuddhodana's priest, is courting his beloved, Guptā, who is widow of his friend. To the left: Guptā also leaves after hearing that Udāyin has followed renunciation.
fig.13
	Cave 1 > hall > ceiling > ORNAMENTAL PAINTINGS AND GENIES.
fig.14
	Cave 2 > hall > rear transept > ceiling > ORNAMENTAL PAINTINGS AND GENIES.
fig.15
	Cave 2 > rear wall > side-shrines (Manibhadra - Purnabhadra shrine on left and Hariti shrine on right) > ceilings > ORNAMENTAL PAINTINGS.
fig.16
	Cave 17 > ceiling > ORNAMENTAL PAINTINGS, GENIES AND SCENES.
fig.17
	Cave 17 > veranda > main doorway > SEVEN (MANUSI) BUDDHAS AND MAITREYA, AMOROUS COUPLES AND ORNAMENTAL PAINTINGS..
fig.18
	Hall > right triforium. BUDDHA'S VENERATION II. This is one of the two paintings of the same theme, both painted during "Mahāyāna" period. The centrally enthroned Buddha figure is attended not only by fan-bearers but standing Buddhas on either side, who in turn, have their own attendants.
fig.19
	Hall > ambulatory > left side> vaulted and ribbed ceiling. Numerous seated Buddha images and lotus rosettes were painted between the rock-beams and rafters in late 5th c. AD whereas the wall below were left untouched having narrative paintings of Hinayāna period.

Even though the cult of the Bodhisattvas, such as Avalokiteśvara or Maitreya, had long been present during the second period of artistic activity in Ajantā, it is characteristic of this complex that the paintings of these Bodhisattvas were given second-class accommodation, such as in window niches. (fig.20)

fig.20
	Cave 17 > veranda > rear wall > right window > right vestibule > BODHISATTVA AVALOKITESVARA.

Apart from the Buddha paintings that were evidently not part of the original concept (fig.21), the non-narrative paintings span a wide spectrum of themes, from purely decorative or symbolic motifs to depictions of genies and gods and the visualisation of Buddhist dogma.

fig.21
	Cave 2 > central shrine > right wall > BUDDHA SERIES.

The largest thematic group is made up of various genies, which appear both as isolated figures and as residents of the Bodhisattva kings' mountainous landscapes (fig.22). The genies such as Nāgas or Yakśas, and among them those which can be more specifically identified such as Kubera (fig.23), Hariti (fig.24), Manibhadra or Purnabhadra (fig, 25), as well as those which are not known by individual names - all of the Gandharvas, Vidyadharas or composite creatures shown in the paintings, played a very important role in the beliefs prevalent among the visitors to the Ajantā monasteries. The pilgrims or merchants passing though on their travels obviously expected them to be present in the Buddhist complex and sought their assistance. While worship of the Buddha - guaranteed by viewing the narrative paintings or by laying down offerings for the main Buddha sculpture in the shrine - has salvation as its goal, i.e. breaking free from the cycle of births, the motivation behind the worship of genies is to secure benefits during the devotee's current existence. The veneration of genies serves to ensure a trouble-free existence. The genies are responsible for material wealth, for money, numerous healthy children, and a happy life, and are protectors against ill fate.

fig.22
	Cave 2 > veranda > rear wall > left of doorway > BODHISATTVA KING IN A MOUNTAINEOUS LANDSCAPE.
fig.23
	Cave 16 > hall > front transept > right side > KUBERA.
fig.24
	Hall > rear right wall > Hariti shrine. Hariti on the left and Panchika (or Jambhala?) on the right.
fig.25
	Hall > left rear wall > Maṇibhadra and Purṇabhadra shrine > rear wall. The Yakśas, PURṆABHADRA and MAṆIBHADRA. Purṇabhadra holds a mango while Maṇibhadra a money bag (like Kubera).

Paintings showing romantic mountainous landscapes peopled by various genies and gods play a very special role in the Ajantā murals. An oversized king is placed at the centre of each such landscape. The kings are normally described as Bodhisattvas, a term which causes confusion. Even if those kings in the 5^th century were understood as Bodhisattvas, they are not shown as venerable objects of worship. The arrangement of the genies in the landscapes shows that they are not worshipping the king, but rather the Buddha in the shrine. With just one exception, - the Bodhisattva on the right rear wall of the vestibule of Cave I (fig.26), the Bodhisattva kings do not carry any attribute, through which they could be identified as specific Bodhisattvas such as Maitreya or Avalokiteśvara. On the contrary, two Bodhisattva kings standing next to one another have the same, non-descript attribute, which makes it impossible to identify them. This observation has a far-reaching consequence: the Bodhisattva kings in Ajantā painting cannot be explained with the help of later literary dictates regarding, "Mahāyāna" iconography (as in nearby Ellora). Instead another path has to be followed: namely one that does not see in these figures the iconographic and dogmatic Bodhisattvas of later periods, but rather identifies them using the earlier representations stemming from the old tradition of showing mythical landscapes at the entrances to the sacred sites. The fact that the Bodhisattva kings were viewed as worthy of the dignity of the Great Beings is proven in one painting which shows such a king, surrounded by genies, positioned alongside and as an equal of the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara.

fig.26
	Cave 1 > shrine antechamber > rear wall > right of shrine doorway > BODHISATTVA KING IN A MOUNTAINEOUS LANDSCAPE.

Not only the pictures of genies but also the majority of the ornamental paintings has as its aim the depiction and thus proliferation of fertility and wealth. The paintings on the ceilings and pillars, the execution of which incidentally always follows an easy to follow scheme, show small dwarfs carrying sacks of money spilling coins - sometimes the coins even spring directly from the dwarfs' heads (fig.27). The prevalent lotus creepers often sprout leaves that serve as platters holding various fruit. This transforms the Ajantā ornamentation into the wish creepers shown in Indian art since ancient times. Numerous symbols of wealth and fertility appear in the paintings, such as abundantly filled vases (pūrṇakalaśa) or coin-spouting conches (sankhanidhi (fig.28 and 29).

fig.27
	Cave 1 > hall > ceiling > ORNAMENTAL PAINTINGS, GENIE SPILLING COINS.
fig.28
	Cave 17 > veranda > ceiling > ORNAMENTAL PAINTINGS AND GENIES.
fig.29
	Cave 17 > veranda > ceiling (near main doorway) > ORNAMENTAL PAINTING SHOWING A COIN-SPROUTING CONCH.

Narrative paintings cover the walls of the Caves I, II, IX, X, XVI and XVII.

The narrative materials on which the paintings are based belong, in the superficial Buddhist revision, to many different literary genres. We find hunting adventures, such as Śaśa, Ruru, Mṛga, Śarabha, Mahiśa, Ṙkśa, Prabhāsa, Sutasoma; travel adventures such as Kalyāṇakārin and Siṃhala; romances like Sudhana; stories giving examples for both clever and ethical behaviour, especially in the affairs of state are there such as Bodhi, Vidhura, Mahośadha and Viśvantara, and; last but not the least, comical tales about stupid ascetics and Brāhmins such as Kśāntivādin.

Just as in poetry, in the paintings too these narrative materials were artistically refined and, just like in poetry, the art of painting created certain clich�s, on which the individual designs of each artist are based. The pictorial design of the paintings needs just a few clich�s, which explain the scenes of action and the events taking place in them straight away to anyone familiar with this pictorial language; only someone completely unfamiliar with it requires a written or verbal interpretation, just as someone unacquainted with the language of poetry requires a commentary. There is, however, one fundamental difference between the works of poetry that have been handed down and the paintings that have been presented; whereas of the countless works of poetry once composed, only those which were considered most valuable were preserved by repeated copying, it is pure chance that of the uncounted wall paintings which once decorated the walls, only those on the walls in Ajantā and some other few monastery caves are preserved. With the lost cities, the painted walls of the urban places and residences were also irretrievably lost. The highlights of the art of painting were surely to be found in the royal palaces, and the paintings in the cave monasteries are only a pale reflection of their beauty which allows us to guess at the artistic quality of the masterpieces. The dark cave monasteries are most unsuitable for the presentation of the pictures, because the paintings are only clearly discernible in the evening, when sunlight penetrates into the caves for a short time. The fact that such caves were painted at all is only due to the fact that sponsors who favoured Buddhism wished to give the monks the opportunity to impart their teachings to the visitors of the monasteries through pictures as well as through words.

This purpose of the monastery paintings implicates that the themes of the paintings were revised in the Buddhist spirit, and in some cases, were inverted by the monks themselves. Thus the wall paintings are pictorial sermons which were supposed to impart two fundamental teachings of Buddhism: firstly, they are supposed to show that the Buddha, master and example for monks and lay-people, is at the same time a being who is explained above all people and whose periodical appearance reroutes the course of world affairs; secondly, they are supposed to render visible that this being, before he became the Buddha, sacrificed himself for others in countless existences as the Bodhistva, thus pointing out to an unkind, cold and egotistical world that one way in which the existence as a human being can be brought to perfection.