The Temple of Muktesvara -Cauadnapura
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| The main ancient elements are: 1) on the northern side, the temple of Mukte¿vara (No. 1), the largest and most beautiful monument on the site; to the east, in its east-west axis a later ma¸·apa; 2) on the eastern elevation of the ground three smaller shrines (2-4); 3) on the southern elevation four shrines in one row (6-9); 4) to the south a lofty monolithic stone mast (5); 5) six inscribed stelae recently installed in a modern shed (10; their original place visible on old photographs is indicated in No. 11). The diagram of the site refers to the present state. When compared to Cousens plan, it shows a few modifications: the disappearance of the ground structure facing shrine 2 and the displacement of the inscribed stela. 1. Mukte¿vara a. garbhag¤ha 2. Kallid®va b. ¿ukan¡s¢ 3. Li´ga c. ¤a´gama¸·apa 4. Li´ga d. mukhabhad¤a 5. K¢rtistambha e. later ma¸·apa 6. Li´ga 7. V¢rabhadra 8. Li´ga 9. Goddess 10. Inscribed stelae (new location in a modern shed; roman numbers refer to Epigraphy section) 11. Inscribed stelae (old location from Cousens plan) 12. V¢rabhadra
From the contents of the inscription we infer that this monument is the temple where KaÆn¡d®vi had a Li´ga installed, called Kallin¡tha after the name of her defunct husband, Kallid®varasa, in 1262. Nowadays the stela has been displaced; its original place has been levelled and the traces of the old foundations have disappeared; the traces of the ra´gama¸·apa platform seen on Cousens plan have also disappeared in a modern platform. On the west side of the surviving building we see clear indications of the existence of an attached structure, i. e. pilasters and corbels the presence of which imply the existence of the architraves of the lost structure. The original name, Kallin¡tha, of the Li´ga, is also forgotten. It was al-ready so in the time of Walter Elliot who recorded the name “temple of Gomuni” still in use among the villagers. This shrine has kept its doorjambs and lintels. The outer walls of the cella have a double axial projection, but no other decoration. There is a tower above the cella and a projection, called ¿ukan¡s¢, coming above the antechamber. The tower is made of seven low strata of gradually diminishing size, with a small dome. The ¿ukan¡s¢ has six strata. Each strata has indentations in a regular spacing. We interpret this feature as a schematic representation of an eave with its attic windows and with turned up points at the angles. The small dome of square plan rests upon a flat moulding with a padma moulding between two recesses. It has a double axial projection on each face. Its graceful curve turns up at the base with upward points at the angles. The crowning motif is a padma moulding of square plan supporting a double circular base for a bulb shaped moulding and a pointed flower bud. The ¿ukan¡s¢ is covered with a flat roof. Its West side is closed with a gable-end motif. To the south of this structure, a shrine consisting of only one cella open to the west, the outward wall of which has no projection, nor any decoration, is what remains of a small temple. There is no visible trace of any other structure attached to it. There is no superstructure. On an old photograph a post is seen in front of that shrine. It is a short post in stone, approximately 1.5 M high, with a lotus bud at the top, and on one side two mortices, at the bottom and towards the top. To the south-east, there is a third structure consisting of only one cella of slightly larger size, open to the east. Only the inward facing of the wall remains. The outward facing, as well as the door frame, had already disappeared when Cousens drew his plan. The southern group comprises four shrines. Cousens plan shows two parallel temples, with cella and antechamber, open to the north-west. At the level of their antechamber they are connected by one single rectangular cella, open to the same direction. To the west extremity of the row there is one more single cella of equal size. Only the inward facings of the walls remain. The three first shrines have preserved their doorframe. The whole has been modified by recent renovations. Monolithic Mast, K¢rtistamba, bearing Inscription
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| The monolithic mast has a double base. From bottom to top its section is successively square, octogonal, sixteen edged. It is topped by a large square abacus. One sees three small pillarets on the abacus; this is what remains of the ancient superstructure. The mast bears a Sanskrit inscription (No. VII) recording its foundation and where it is called k¢rtistambha “pillar of fame”.
Main Monument.
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| The main monument is a structure comprising one cella (garbhag¤ha), one antechamber (¿ukan¡s¢) and a closed hypostyle hall (ra´gama¸·apa), all placed on the same east-west axis. All of them are open to the east. The ra´gama¸·apa has a second opening to the south, and a porch for each opening. To the east one more ma¸·apa with four central pillars, of slightly larger size, has been added in later times. It has, in fact, no structural connection with the main monument. It is slightly out of its axis, even though its central low platform with four pillars is in the east-west axis. It is closed on its south and north sides. Only the internal facings of these walls remain. |
| The Temple of Mukt®¿vara, elevation of the northern facade. The main structure is a remarkably well-built monument. It is clearly the product of one well-thought architectural project. Though an inscription mentions a renovation made in the 13th century, in the construction, as we see it now, we do not observe any recast of an initial project, nor any later modification or important repair. The renovation may have been such an important reconstruction, that no earlier parts, nor any trace of an older stage have been left visible. The main monument shelters a Li´ga called Mukte¿vara “Lord of the Released (Souls)”. The inscriptions which contain a number of references to the Li´ga called Mukte¿vara and express the feelings and thoughts of the worshippers, in the form of refined literary eulogies of the god, reveal a noteworthy evolution in their attitude and conceptions. The two first inscriptions describe mostly the mythological aspect of áiva. The following ones keep the same theme and introduce new concepts. In inscription III the foundation of a temple is told to be the bringing of Kail¡sa on the earth (l. 33): áivadeva having brought the Kail¡sa, said to be beyond imagination, with the army of all gods, to the earth, had a pleasant abode built to áiva, to produce áiva’s pleasure. Similarly the temple of áiva is declared to be a M®ru, MuktikÀetra being a Kail¡sa (III l. 23-24).
The inscription III introduces a new religious figure, áivadeva. With him comes a new concept of the deity, which includes the mythological representation, but does not give to it the same emphasis. The emphasis is put on devotion. A larger place is given to the view of the worshipper áivadeva is told to be an incarnation of Nandin or Amara-Ga¸a i. e. a courtier of áiva in Kail¡sa. He performed worship mostly in the form of heroic vows described in Inscription III. In fact he belongs to the class of saints and yogins practicing meditation and pursuing mystic experiences. He is turned more towards the unmanifested aspects of God. His attachment to the manifested aspect appears in his vow not to move out of MuktikÀetra. May be that was due to his belief in the sanctity of this place. His belief in the sacredness of ár¢¿ailam in Ëndhra, where he resided before his coming to MuktikÀetra in 1225, is also recorded (III l. 15b-16a). The attachment to the Li´gas of these two particular temples seems to be the main link maintained by him with the manifested. The attitude of the worshipper who directs his mental representation towards a concrete object, who places the unmanifest on the manifest is directly expressed (III l. 16b-17a): “áivamuddud®va who says: “I shall show to this world that the invisible áiva is manifested here in Dhava½ali´ga” believes in it firmly.” Later the emphasis is placed more on the practice of meditation, than on ritual practices. It goes upto the point to declare that the mental representation creates the concrete form. In inscription No. V stanza 7 which describes the sage áivadeva meditating on the áivali´gatattva and causing it to take form: “This áivadeva who caused the very rich essence áivali´ga to take form by meditating intensely over it.” The essence called áivali´ga is in V¢ra¿aiva doctrine the supreme entity, not accessible to the senses. The qualification ghanatara is often given to the supreme principle to indicate the plenitude of its essence (compare with the epithet cidghana “full of consciousness”. áivadeva practices meditation over the supreme. The intensity of his meditation gives a concrete form to the abstract entity. By the force of meditation the yogin gets a direct perception. Thus the non-manifest and the manifest are linked by the religious practice. The identification of the concrete Li´ga with the abstract concept of God is also remarkably illustrated in inscription VIII l. 9-10: “The god Mukte¿vara who is the Li´ga-soul of the siddha áivadeva.” From the date of 1265 onwards áivadeva is called a siddha, i. e. one who has acquired supernatural powers by y°ga, who has attained liberation in the form of union with the supreme áiva. In V¢ra¿aiva vocabulary he has become the principle of áiva Li´ga. His soul or livening power called pr¡´a is a Li´ga, one with the supreme. The demise of the saint took place in MuktikÀetra. This is his sam¡dhi or fusion with Li´ga. From that time the soul of the saint equated with God is placed on the Li´ga in the temple. The soul of the saint fused with God is the unmanifest placed in the manifest by the event of the demise and liberation of the saint. In inscription VII l. 10-11 the name of the saint is transferred to the Li´ga: “In the presence of the god Mukte¿vara who has the name ár¢ Siddha áivadeva.” One more fact about the Li´ga Mukte¿vara deserves to be recorded. Today the villagers declare that the deity of their temple is Mukte¿vara in the form of an udbhava li´ga. This is the common designation in Kanna·a of a Li´ga which is believed to have come out spontaneously, by itself, in a particular place. The installation is not ascribed to men, but to the god himself, who is considered as having come to the earth in a particular place by his own will. In Sanskrit this type of temple image is called svayaÆbh£ – li´ga. N¢laka¸tha áiv¡c¡rya defines it in his Kriy¡s¡ra: “Satisfied with the penance of gods and sages, in order to make himself present, áambhu who is inside the earth as a seed in the form of n¡da, like an immobile germ, breaks the ground and becomes manifest. Because he is bh£ta i. e. born from himself, he is known as svayambh£ “self-born”. By the worship of this li´ga, knowledge grows by itself. “The denomination of svayambh£ or udbhava does not occur in the inscriptions, nor is it told in any of them that the Li´ga was installed by any historical figure. References are to the construction of temples, not to the creation of a Li´ga. However two passages give clear indications that the belief in the spontaneous presence of áiva in MuktikÀetra was current in the times of áivadeva. In inscription IV a myth of the descent of áiva in MuktikÀetra is narrated with the words (l. 16b-18a): “Staying there I shall purify all in the three worlds” saying thus the beloved of mountain’s daughter appeared as Mukt¢¿a and aroused love in the Lord of the Earth. “Li´ga has already appeared on the Earth” (See also Inscription V l. 9b-11a). Therefore nothing goes against the local oral tradition which we record nowadays. And we may consider that Mukte¿vara has been regarded as being a svayambh£-li´ga in the past also. It also has the low shape characteristic of this type of Li´gas. |
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Temple’s tower seen from north-east. The terminal shallow dome (¿ikhara) of the monument is borne by a very small drum (20 CMS) called gala. Its section is square with two axial projections and an axial large n¡sik¡ called bhadra n¡sik¡. It is 2.20 M in its axis at the base, 1.10 at the top. Its height is 95 CMS. Its double curve is comparable to the graceful one of the padma moulding. A rib marks the passage from the convex curve to the concave one, which starts in slight recess below the fall of the first one. The topmost motif (st£p¢) is made of three beautiful lotiform mouldings diminishing in size and a lotus bud with its base. The dome is hollow and is closed by the slabs of the st£p¢. Starting from the cella the plan of the main monument shows a succession of elements placed on the west-east axis. After the cella there is an antechamber of equal volume. The dividing wall between the two is very thick (75 cm). The opening is arranged with two slabs placed obliquely. There is a doorframe with a threshold richly decorated on the side of the antechamber. The antechamber has the same construction and ceiling as the cella. Its outer walls are the prolongation of the vim¡na wall. It is topped by a projection from the tower of small size (length 1.30 M, width 1.55 M). The term ¿ukan¡s¢ is employed for both the projection and the antechamber situated below.
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 Pillars of the Ra´gama¸·apa. The pillars have a base, a shaft divided in three parts, two of square section and between them one which is itself divided in three parts, one of octagonal section between two of hexadecagonal section. The upper part of the pillar consists of three main elements with transition mouldings allowing the passage from the square section to a circular section: first a recessing curved moulding, an astragal in the recess, a band of circular section, a recess, then a large three-faced band jutting out by 8 CMS, a recess, finally a large abacus with a lower doucine, jutting out by 18 CMS. Above the pillar, after the recess marked by the square v¢raka¸·a, there is an intermediary system of corbels (bodhik¡) carrying the architraves (uttara). áilpa¿¡stra nomenclatures of pillars cannot be applied in this particular case with certitude. The middle and upper elements of the capital may be the kumbha and ma¸·i commonly mentioned in association in Ajit¡gama for example. But the lower series of mouldings seems to be much more than the t¡¶¢ given in that position, but appearing to be a simple astragal.
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 Southern porch, east facade. The hall is open on three sides: in the west the access to the antechamber of the cella, in the east an opening in the east-west axis, in the south an opening in the north-south axis. The two last openings are equipped with a very richly decorated doorframe and threshold and are preceded by a porch. The doorframes on their external side are the parts which have received the most elaborated decoration in the whole monument. The porch of square plan is made of two thick pilasters, one on each side of the door, and two pillars resting on a kind of high bench with a railing slanting towards the outside. The outer face of the bench (90 CMS high) has a double plinth, which is the continuation of that of the monument, then a frieze of decorative small pilasters with architectural superstructure. On the western and eastern sides of the southern porch, there is a long niche, at the level of the frieze of small pilasters. Now, they are empty, and one does not know their original destination. It seems to be an original feature of this monument. The distance between the pillars is 1.80 M, and from the pilaster to a pillar 1.90 M in the eastern porch, 2.10 MS in the southern one. The elaborately decorated ceiling of both porches is at the same height as in the central volume of the hall, the antechamber and the sanctum. Therefore we have again a delimitation of a volume approximately equal to those already described. The pillars belong to the type made of a square base, a series of mouldings of circular section, a bulb, a second set of circular mouldings and a large abacus supporting a corbel system. Even though they are of short size and relatively simple, they are good samples of the pillars, which typically adorn later C¡½ukyan temples (compare with the porch pillars of the temple of Som®¿vara in Hara½aha½½i). The architraves bear a long eave with a graceful curve carved in a solid mass of stone which on its inward face shows a figuration of a wooden carpentry work made of rafter ends with transversal connections. The top of this long eave is at the same level as the short eave of the rest of the monument. The same mouldings and frieze of ¿ikharas is continued above the porches.The term mukhabhadra occurs in an inscription of the Ked¡r®¿vara temple in Ba½½ig¡ve, where it seems to refer to the porches of the vast ma¸·apa. Mukha- may refer to an opening and bhadra in southern áilpa¿¡stra refers to a jutting out, axial part of a monument. The porches of Mukte¿vara temple are quite similar to those at Ba½½ig¡ve. Therefore the designation of mukhabhadra seems appropriate for them. Both openings of the ra´gama¸·apa to the exterior are characterised by an elaborate set of three doorframes. Each one is made of two doorjambs and a lintel. In fact, the second and the third can be told to be a frame for the previous one. Consequently they are of increasing size. They are also of different structure. The first, inner and real doorframe, is the frame to the opening and bears the hinge-pins of the wooden door-panels. The jambs and lintel are simple, being of quadrangular section. On their outer face they bear a specific decorative motif (doorjamb first band). The second is the frame of the previous and protruding towards the exterior. It is also of quadrangular section. It bears its specific decorative motif (doorjamb second band) on its sides exposed to the exterior. The third, being a frame for the second, is much larger. It is characterised by a protruding eave topped by a series of seven figurative vim¡na towers. That is supported by two pilasters jutting out of each jamb. The pilasters have their specific, intricate design. The spaces between them and the sides exposed to the exterior have each their specific decorative motif (doorjamb bands 4, 6, 7). The lintel bears also a central hanging ornament on which is sculptured an image of Mahe¿vara and on each side a hanging ornament in the form of a twelve-petalled flower bud. The eave tops all these elements, pilasters and hanging ornaments. Miniature vim¡na -towers are placed above each of these elements. These three “concentric” doorframes are all inserted in the wall of the ra´gama¸·apa, so that the lintels appear topped by the architrave and the doorjambs flanked by the large pilasters characteristic of the wall structure. This is an architectural element, hewn out in stone, but wrought out like a piece of jewellery. One can distinguish three parts, a base, a shaft and a capital. Each part, even the shaft, has been made into a set of delicately worked mouldings. The base is a block, 52 CMS high, bearing an image of a door-guardian (dv¡rap¡laka) under an arch topped by a foliage motif, an elaborate variant of creeper 1. The shaft (96 CMS), of square section, is made of six repetitions of a motif of mouldings. The set of mouldings is made of three protruding elements, reminding of those of a monument base: a flat band, a kumuda and a quarter of a circle; they are separated by recesses, all transitions are done with the help of lotiform curves (padma) and tiny square bands (kampa). This set is vertically mirrored. And the basic motif is made of the two symmetrical parts. In addition to this, it is also duplicated by the method of axial projection in a reduced size, shown on all visible sides of the pilaster, so that in elevation one sees the central prominent portion, on each side the part of the shaft not covered by the projection, and again on each side the profile of the projection done on the orthogonal face. It is only 15 CMS long for a total breadth of 6.5 CMS (3.5 CMS for the central projection, 1 for the side view of the shaft, 0.5 for the profile of the orthogonal projection). Every moulding, every recess is shown on all the visible faces. There are variants of some elements of this motif on the different pilasters of the doorjambs. The capital is a long series of small elements similar to those of the wall pilasters, on a total height of 40 CMS. The transition of the porch to the wall of the ra´gama¸·apa is decorated with an original element. The support of the horizontal slab of the bench has the same height as the adhiÀ¶h¡na or wall-base. At this level, at the junction of the bench-structure and the wall, there is a vertical slab engaged in the wall, half the height of the wall, decorated on its outer face with a socle and a frieze of a jewellery foliage motif. A protruding element joins it to the bench; it is decorated like the base of the porch, with a small pilaster and a dancing figure. Above a square band bearing the motif of creeper 6, rises a curious foliage element: from a bunch of vegetal crooks a larger outgrowth grows, supporting a flower on its stem, just starting to open. This seems to be another original feature of this temple. |
 South Porch, ceiling. The ceiling inside the porch is elevated by doubling the architrave, as in the pillared hall. It is made of one stone slab on which is represented a beautiful carpentry work. That is an assemblage of nine beams, crossing at right angles and delimiting nine squares. The beam is ornamented with the motif of creeper 1 and on each side with the motif of a petal leaf on a socle. In each square they support a ceiling in the form of a shallow dome. Two types of dome are being represented. The first consists of three concentric, corbelling rings of semicircle coffers with graceful cusps at their joints. In each ring there are sixteen coffers and cusps. They are disposed, so that the cusp of the middle ring is in the axis of the aligned coffers of the other two rings. In the centre is a representation of a hanging flower bud. In the corners of the square, between the angle and the curve of the ring, there is the motif of the lion-face. This type is seen in the central square and in the squares of the four directions. The second type is the representation of an open flower with three recessing rings of thirty-two petals, with the hanging flower bud at the centre. It is used in the four corners.One has to note the regularity and delicacy of the carving of these complicated motifs in a rather small size. This is a kind of representation of the large ceilings called n¡bhicchanda in a number of contemporaneous temples of Karn¡¶aka (Hangal etc).
The most simple of these structures has a square plan and consists of the following elements: a) A double base, upap¢¶ha and adhiÀ¶h¡na. The top moulding of the upap¢¶ha has a large attic window (n¡sik¡) in its centre, one or several (according to its size) attic windows on each side symmetrically, at the extremities a small one in recess on the slope of the roof. The first moulding of the adhiÀ¶h¡na shows the ends of beams which seem to radiate from the centre of a square.
b) On the square base is a slender pilaster in each angle which bears the system of corbels, architrave and eave seen on the wall.
c) A roof with its base. In the case of a structure with a square plan there is the shallow dome (¿ikhara) above.
This structure is therefore a miniature reproduction of the structure of the main monument. A variant of this square structure is a miniature building made of the same elements in oblong plan. The only remarkable difference with the previous one is the cylindrical shape of its roof built on high hoops with gable-ends.
There are several scales of reduction for this structure. It is represented by one side or by two in an angle. Several of these structures, being of diminishing scale, can be superimposed one upon the other.
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 Vim¡na, north wall. On the external wall of the vim¡na, on the two axis, on the north, west and east sides there is a system of three projections of diminishing size superimposed one upon the other. Each one is the representation of an architectural structure, at all the levels, base, wall and roof; it has a pillar at each angle and a longitudinal cylindrical roof. The roof of the third and narrowest one is placed orthogonally so that only its gable-end is visible. A fourth miniature building is again superimposed on the wall of the third projection in the same axis; it differs from the previous ones by its smaller size and by the fact it has a real opening, so that it plays the role of a niche. The opening is decorated with a representation of a doorframe sheltered under a long eave. Its roof is the miniature representation of a tower with double attic and dome, an exact copy of the vim¡na tower of the main monument. There has been in the niche a statue, which was worshipped; a small channel has been carved in the stone for the outflow of ablution waters. Today the statue has disappeared and the absence of any other document hampers all attempt of identification. At each angle of the square plan of the vim¡na, on the outer wall, there is a superimposed representation of a square structure made of the same elements, in slight projection. It has a pilaster in each of its visible angles and a dome. Each of its visible sides bears the representation of a miniature temple, with a double-storied tower, replica of the main monument, but without opening and not made into a niche like the axial one.
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 North facade, north east angle of the Vim¡na wall. In the interval between the axial projections and the corner one there is a little space of wall which is not left undecorated, but bears one more type of architectural miniature representation (paµjara) consisting in the image of a short pillar supporting an architectural superstructure under decorative arch. The two attics of the tower repeat the same sequence of miniature structures with the same elements, with the exception of the base, in diminishing sizes. Images of deities are carved on the gable-ends of the roofs. In the axial gable-ends there were separate small stelae which have now disappeared, but mortises are still there to show that a provision had been made for them. It is thus clear that all these miniature architectural representations are not a mere ornamentation. With the main structure they form an architectural unit representing the theological concept of the supreme inward abstract form of God surrounded by a hierarchy of outward anthropomorphic manifestations. The antechamber is a transition element. On the external side the separation between the cella and the antechamber is marked by the position of the antechamber’s wall in recess from the cella’s wall. The transitional character is shown by the representation of a thick pilaster, which seems to be a transitional motif in this style of architecture. Here it is shown on a projection of the double base of the monument and topped by the eave and a separate superstructure motif. The shaft of square section is very short. The upper portion is very elaborate: an astragal between recesses, a large lotiform moulding, a lower parasol shaped moulding, a large recess, a bigger projecting chamfered band (kumbha), a new recess and a large abacus (ma¸·i) on a lotiform moulding. The whole pilaster is repeated in slenderer size in the form of axial projections superimposed on itself.
The superstructure of the antechamber, i. e. the projection of the tower, is made of the continuation of the tower motifs at the level of the first attic, one square architectural structure, without the base, in the east-west axis, two superimposed one on the other on the north and south sides. At the level of the second attic of the tower, there is the long roof of the ¿ukan¡s¢, made of stone slabs dotted with many schematised n¡sik¡. On the eastern side there is a large gable-end. It must have been decorated with a sculptured stela, which has disappeared now. On the northern side, in the north-south axis there is a system of three projections with a pilaster in the visible angles and longitudinal cylindrical roofs. A fourth projection has a cylindrical roof in orthogonal position showing only its gable-end. A fifth axial projection shows the representation of a temple with an opening, playing the role of a niche; it has a miniature doorframe, long eave and three three-levelled towers, exact copies of the main vim¡na. Here also, the image in the niche has disappeared. The figuration of three towers may be an indication that there were three images in the niche. There is a structure with a square roof at each angle of the ra´gama¸·apa. Each visible face of these structures bears one more representation of a miniature temple with a double-storeyed tower. On the northern side the transition between the axial system of projections and the angle projections is made by the transitional thick pilaster in a slight recess. On the other sides the transitional pilaster appears also between the angle projections and the implantation of the ¿ukan¡s¢ or the porches. The frieze of roofs of the main part of the monument is continued on the porches. On each visible side of the porch the frieze consists of a central cylindrical roof and square domes in the angles. There is no space of wall, which has been left blank. As the ra´gama¸·apa has a larger size, the space between the pilasters of the central projections is sufficiently large to be occupied by one more architectural motif, a small pilaster supporting a double-storied tower. On each side of the transitional thick pilaster there is the motif of the pilaster with simple super-structure under an arch. |
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The outward facings of the walls bear the superimposed secondary structures, which will be described later. In the recesses between them parts of what may be considered as belonging to the main structure, are seen. The elements which it is made of are the same as those of the secondary shrines, so that there is agreement and continuity of both structures. For the cella they are a double base, a wall with pilasters, an eave; for each step of the tower there is a wall with pilasters and an eave. The dome of square plan rests upon a base and a recess. Its outward shape is that of lotus petals curved downwards and with turned up points at the base. It has three axial projections on each side. The last is the architectural motif of a square gable-end of a roof; it is now a flat stone; it may have been the support for a sculptured stela. There is one more crowning motif: three rows of lotus petals and a lotus bud on a double base. The whole, cella and tower, bears the name of vim¡na or pr¡s¡da. These two terms are used for the dwellings of gods or kings, or more technically refer to buildings having a superstructure. The word vim¡na is sometimes used in reference to the superstructure alone (Mayamata) (VIII 195) and this use which seems to be rare in ancient times, seems to become more current in modern times. Thus the facings of the walls are of a totally different nature. The inward facing is made of seemingly thin stone slabs placed on edges and devoid of decoration; it is a pure stone architecture. The outward facing is made of thicker stone slabs bearing a sculptured representation of wooden architectural models. The ground level is the same for the cella and the courtyard outside, so that the two facings have the same height. We have not been able to observe the foundations. Their last layer, the top of which is apparent at the level of the paving of the courtyard, is made of long stone slabs. That may be understood as the component called up¡nah in áilpa¿¡stra. It is the basic layer, the strength and horizontality of which ensures the tightness of the construction. The plinth is a few centimetres in recess. Following the most common prescriptions of áilpa¿¡stra the base is to be considered as made of two parts, lower and upper, called upap¢¶ha and adhiÀ¶h¡na. The former comprises three major protruding mouldings: a flat plinth (jagat¢ or p¡duka) repeated in slight recess and topped by a lotiform moulding (padma), a chamfered band (kumuda), a terminal moulding (Kapota) in the shape of an eave, i. e. a sloping roof with jutting out attic windows cal-led n¡sik¡ or n¢·a. In between these three mouldings there are two deep recesses (ka¸¶ha). A finer square moulding, which may be called Kampa, together with small padmas provide graceful transitions between them. There are deep hollow joints at the base and between the plinths. This series of mouldings forms a unit, as shown by the up¡nah which is a lower element and by the kapota which is an upper and terminal element. That is why it bears the distinctive name: upap¢¶ha. It is the proper base of the building. All the three major mouldings bear a refined decoration sculptured in very low relief: a creeper motif on the first plinth, a frieze of haÆsa on the second one, a geometrical jewellery motif on the outward edge of the kumuda, a series of n¡sik¡, symmetrically disposed, with the lion-head motif on the kapota. The upper part of the base, or adhiÀ¶h¡na, is a base for the pillars of the wall. Therefore it may be considered more properly as a part of the wall itself. It consists of two protruding mouldings separated by low recesses. The first moulding above the kapota of the upap¢¶ha is an original feature, which is proper to this type of temple in Karn¡¶aka; it is the representation of a series of extremities of beams with connecting bands. Their number and disposition depend upon the representations of secondary structures and will be described later with them. The last moulding is a square band supported by a large inverted padma. It may be called prati which in áilpa¿¡stra is a common designation of the uppermost moulding of the adhiÀ¶h¡na. It supports directly the pilasters and is not cut by any of the niches. This adhiÀ¶h¡na can be understood as the direct support of the pillars in a wooden construction. The crossed and radiating beams, the extremities of which are seen in the lower moulding, could be the representation of a tight wooden base for a superstructure. This feature can be seen in modern wooden temple cars. The second band or prati can be a representation of a connecting beam passing through the pillars. Because it is continuous, it ensures the fixation of the pillars and the tightness of the building. ARCHITECTURE
The entablature is the representation of two superposed architraves (uttara). Where there is a representation of an angle, orthogonal architraves are crossed and their crossed extremities are shown. These extremities appear above the corbels, so that we see a series of three corbelling elements above the pilasters. Such a superposition of corbels and architraves is a feature of wooden architecture, which can be still observed in recently built houses in North Karn¡¶aka. The pair of architraves bears a long, non-curved eave. The angles have a turned up point. Occasionally there are attic windows called n¡sik¡. The eave is topped by one more protruding moulding, which is a kapota after a small recess. It has the shape of a shorter eave with n¡sik¡. This is not a duplication of the previous eave. The role of the kapota is to mark the termination of an architectural element. Here it indicates the termination of the first level of the building. It has also a functional role. The very long eave rests on the architraves in cantilever position and a strong counterweight must be placed above in order to prevent it to topple down. Architraves, eave and kapota are given in áilpa¿¡stra as one unit called prastara. The prastara described so far supports, not one superstructure, but a frieze of figured superstructures of reduced sizes. Each one comprises an adhiÀ¶h¡na similar to that of the wall, i. e. the moulding made of beam extremities and the upper band (prati), then, after a small recess, a dome-shaped roof (¿ikhara). Because of the division and composition of the side into multiple representations of secondary structures, the frieze is made of several types of ¿ikhara. Those placed in the angles are of square plan and called kar¸ak£¶a. Those in the axis are of oblong plan and called madhyakoÀ¶ha or (bhadra¿¡l¡). Those in the intermediary left spaces are square, are still more reduced in size and called paµjara. With this frieze of ¿ikhara we can consider that the first level (tala) of the monument is completed. It tops not only the first level of the vim¡na, but also the rangama¸·apa and porches, going around the whole monument, in the same way the base and wall do. The vim¡na portion is topped by two more levels, the structure of which is quite similar to the first one. These two upper levels are of diminishing size and less elaborate than the first one. Because of their reduced sizes they look like attics. But we can recognise in their structure the wall (the adhiÀ¶h¡na of which is hidden in the terrace of the lower level behind the frieze of (¿ikhara) with pilasters, the prastara (without the longer eave), the superstructure with its adhiÀ¶h¡na and frieze of ¿ikhara. We had no possibility to observe the interior of the tower. However, from the observation of the external construction, one can determine the different layers of stone. It is probable that the walls of the tower are made of corbelling stone slabs. We do not know whether there are internal reinforcing built walls, as found in other monuments of the same period and style (Ra¶¶iha½½i, etc.). The height of the two upper talas taken together leaves an inner hollow volume approximately equal to the volume of the garbhag¼ha of the first level. But there is no trace outside that any access to it had ever been provided.
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The Temple of Mukt®¿vara The site is on the left bank of the Tu´gabhadr¡, on the convex and elevated bank of a meander of the river, which flows from east to west at this particular point. The westward direction of the river has a strong poetical, or even religious resonance in the minds of the people, as it is a feature repeatedly emphasized in the inscriptions. The religious site covers the highest ground, looking down towards the river and the flat cultivated plain on the opposite bank. The steep slope of the bank has been built into a flight of steps on a length of 40 metres approximately. The ancient built site must have been larger than the area delimited by the modern compound. The modern village is at a distance of about 500 metres from the temple site. Villagers recently excavated the ground to the south-west of the compound and found a few ancient sculptured slabs which were re-used by them when erecting a small shrine dedicated to the Goddess Honnamma.
Northern facade, áikhara. The undated photograph reproduced in áivadevavijayam, published in 1949 shows well the original location of the stelae bearing the inscriptions and the elements which have disappeared in front of shrine 2. The stela bearing the image of V¢rabhadra seen on top has been installed in the recent shed with the inscribed stelae. To the south of the later ma¸·apa of the main monument there is a temple with one cella and an antechamber open to the west. On its axis Cousens plan shows a square platform which looks like the base of a ra´gama¸·apa, and traces of the foundations of a structure which we are not able to identify. This is a possible location for a porch which could have been erected in front of the ra´gama¸·apa. An old photograph which may be contemporaneous with Cousens plan shows in this very place a large stela bearing an image of V¢rabhadra in high relief. It can be identified as the stela which bears the ins-cription No. V on its other side.
East West section looking South, Vim¡na. The vim¡na is the architectural volume dedicated to the Li´ga Mukte¿vara. The abstract entity, áiva, is represented by the Li´ga, which is here of small size and on a very short base, as in many other temples of the same region and time. The Li´ga is at the centre of a cella of square plan (2.20 x 2.20 M). This cella is almost cubic, the height is 2.45 M under the ceiling, 2.20 M under the architraves. It is called garbhag¤ha as it is the innermost part of the monument. It has only one opening, a door on the eastern side. The walls of considerable thickness (1.50 M at the plinth level in the east-west axis) are made of a filling, which we could not observe, between two facings of long stone slabs. Those of the inward facing have the full size of the wall on each side of the cella. In each angle there is a pilaster. On the west and north walls there is a cyma for the purpose of keeping cult instruments. The architraves have a chamfered edge. The ceiling is made of two series of triangular slabs placed in the angles and leaving a square space in the centre. That square space is covered by a slab decorated with three circles of lotus petals and a flower bud. The cella is topped by a tower of pyramidal shape with two steps and a small dome. We had no possibility of observing the interior of it.
e wall (p¡da) shows a series of smaSouth facade, Central niche. Thll pilasters (ku·yastambha) carved in the body of the massive stones. This is a representation of thin wooden pillars of a hypostyle pavilion, the space between the pillars being filled with some material. The other structures carved between the pilasters are secondary structures, which will be described below. The represented pillar consists of a base, a shaft of square section and an upper part made of three elements, a bulb slightly protruding, a chamfered band and a large abacus, with thin transition mouldings. The middle element and the upper one are much larger than the shaft. They are the most conspicuous elements and may be the kala¿a and ma¸·i or (phalaka) of áilpa¿¡stra. Between the abacus of the pilaster and the first architrave there seems to be an intermediary system of corbels. We call corbel the protruding element (potik¡ or bodhik¡) which supports an architrave (uttara) and which is the usual intermediary between a pillar and any superstructure in Indian wooden or stone architecture. The corbel does not rest directly on the abacus. In the space between them appears a square element, which has the breadth of the body of the pillar. That may be a representation of the square tenon engaged in the abacus and the corbel, visible in the space between them, and which is of square section to prevent the abacus and corbel to turn. In áilpa¿¡stra it is called v¢raka¸¶ha or (v¢raka¸·a) and is given as the terminal part of the pillar below the potik¡. In the angles of the monument, where orthogonal architraves are crossed, there is a system of crossed orthogonal corbels.
